In public perception, when one thinks of "prehistoric humans," an image of scantily clothed, violent men and women with wild hair comes to mind. They speak in grunts and carry thick clubs. Life is hard for them, so survival is the only thing that matters, even at the expense of others.
Upon closer inspection of the evidence left behind by prehistoric humans, a very different picture comes to the fore. As we study these people, the assumptions we've made about them suddenly seem not only misguided but uncaring.
One location in Eswatini, in Southern Africa, truly brings this concept to light: Lion Cavern. This site is home to a vital resource for prehistoric humans. Unlike many of the incredible ancient tools that revolutionized early civilizations, this resource wasn't used for immediate survival or profit but was used for art and decoration.
What is this archaeological site? How does it change our perception of prehistoric humans?
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What Is Lion Cavern?
This site in Eswatini is 48,000 years old!
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In the Kingdom of Eswatini (formerly known as Swaziland), and near its northwestern border, Lion Cavern is truly an incredible place. On a tall hill overlooking a gorge, the landscape surrounding it is stunning. Yet the site is so much more than that: it's actually the world's oldest known mine!
During the 1960s and 70s, archaeological work at the site indicated that the site was around 20,000 years old. However, later work showed that the mine was 48,000 years old, more than double what was initially thought. The 20,000-year-old artifacts initially found are now considered to be the last phase of prehistoric mining done at this site, indicating that the area had been in use for 28,000 years.
Based on the location and the time period, it's likely that the species of hominin that was hunting for resources here was sapiens rather than Neanderthals (since they did not live in this part of Africa). The discoveries at this site have been path-breaking, like some discoveries that altered history as we knew it.
Where is Lion Cavern?
Eswatini
How old is it?
48,000 years old
When did archaeological work start here?
In the 1960s
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What Were Prehistoric Humans Looking For At The Lion Cavern Mine?
Prehistoric humans at Lion Cavern were looking for a substance called ochre
Shades of Ochre
Though many things are found in this area, the capital resource that prehistoric humans were looking for at Lion Cavern was ochre. Ochre is a clay earth pigment, meaning that it comes in beautiful colors, such as yellow, red, purple, sienna, umber, brown, and even white. When mixed with oil, these pigments are perfect for painting or for body art.
Like the first-ever tools, this resource was used Homo sapins, but wasn't originally invented by us. Instead, the first ochre use has been tied to another type of human: Homo erectus. Data from a site called GnJh-03 in Kenya (located near the Kobosowany tributary of the Kapthurin River) suggests the use of red ochre by these prehistoric hominins around 285,000 years ago.
Though this evidence is compelling, it remains controversial since it's currently still up for debate whether or not H. erectus created art. The earliest uncontroversial evidence for humans using ochre comes from Maastricht-Belvédère in The Netherlands. This site, dated 250-200,000 years old, indicates that Neanderthals used ochre long before sapiens did.
By the time the Lion Cave was discovered by prehistoric humans, ochre had been an important part of life for over 100,000 years. The ochre found at Lion Cavern is a gorgeous shade of red, so it's easy to understand why it was so important! The cultural significance that these specific prehistoric humans assigned to this resource is currently unknown, but it's safe to say that this resource isn't one that we'd deem as a "necessity" for immediate survival.
In prehistory, ochre would have been used for painting, with other possible uses including body and hair decoration. To this day, ochre remains an important resource for many.
What is ochre?
A natural pigment that comes in beautiful colors
Who were the first humans to use ochre?
Homo erectus, the Neanderthals
How long has ochre been used by humans?
285,000 years...or more
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If Ochre Was Well-Known In Prehistory, Why Is Lion Cavern Important?
Lion Cavern's significance isn't just what was found there but how prehistoric humans extracted it
Now that we understand the time frame of ochre's significance to prehistoric people, some might be wondering why Lion Cavern is important. What makes Lion Cavern so significant, in particular, is its status as a mine.
Instead of just being a place where resources were found and taken, it seems that the site was extensively explored for resources and was used specifically and singularly for this purpose. Archaeologists have made this assertion based on the type of tools found at the site, such as choppers, picks, and hammers.
These tools showcased a level of specialization at the site, which indicated that the site was primarily used for mining. A 2024 study even showed that the people who mined at Lion Cavern had extensive trade and transport networks throughout the area. This shows social communication and cooperation.
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The Mine Today
The area of these mines has been continually used for iron ore extraction since 400 CE
Between now and 48,000 years ago, a lot has changed, but many things have stayed the same. While Lion Cavern is a protected historical site, the surrounding area is actually still used for mining. From the 5th century CE until today, this area (called Ngwenya Mines) has been a place where humans have mined for a different substance, iron.
Sadly, though, this site has also faced many tragedies in its modern history. Firstly, the mining operations that have taken place at the site have caused water pollution in nearby cities and have threatened local orchid species. Secondly, the site faced a horrible tragedy in 2018 when the site's visitor center burned down (page 16). Many prehistoric and ancient artifacts were lost, causing great sorrow for the local community.
The mine is currently on UNESCO's list of tentative sites. As of 2025, you can still visit the mines, visible along a 15-minute hike. While enjoying the attractions Eswatini in Southern Africa offers, tourists should take an excursion to this incredible site.
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What Can We Learn About Ancient Peoples From This? What Can We Learn About Ourselves?
Lion Cavern shows us that prehistoric people spent a lot of time and resources trying to find beauty, but it also illuminates the lesser parts of our culture today
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The story of this mine poses an important question to consider. For a long time, we've thought that prehistoric people were primitive, violent, and uncaring due to wrong assumptions made by 19th and 20th-century archaeologists about human nature. Instead, archaeological evidence has shown that humans were more than that.
Our ancestors cared for their sick and elderly, created beautiful art, had music, and had lives as complex as our own. Lion Cavern shows us that they would have spent countless hours and many important resources trying to find a beautiful red pigment, all for non-survival reasons. They might not have had access to the technology that we do today, but they were still people.
The idea that prehistoric humans were "primitive" implies that we today are not. And yet, collectively, we have wrought a level of destruction never before seen on our planet and have ushered in great suffering for countless people. In the 21st century, the continued mining near Lion Cavern has caused great wealth for some but untold devastation to others and the natural environment.
Why were we so quick to classify these prehistoric people as primitive? Why do we believe we're collectively better than they were? What right do we, the culture that has wrought a yet untold level of suffering on the world, have to make such a claim?